First Nation Music in Portage County
- Cheyenne Witzeling
- 2 days ago
- 11 min read
As part of our PCHS feature exhibit, each month through December of 2026 we will share a new piece of music history. Be sure to come back to learn more about the music that makes Portage County so great!
First Nation / Native American Music in Portage County
The land we now know as Portage County was originally settled by various Native American groups. Before county, state, and nation boundaries were established, this county was home to primarily the Menominee nation but was also home to the Ojibwe and Ho-Chunk nations.
Menominee History
The Menominee nation is also known as the Kiash Mamaceqtaw. “Menominee” is an Algonquin word meaning “people of the wild rice”. The neighboring tribes called this tribe the Menominee because wherever they went the rice flourished, and when they left the rice seemed to disappear. This was because the Menominee were a seasonal nomadic tribe who knew where to settle each season according to what harvest would be available. The Menominee do not have a migration story of how they came to the Wisconsin area; they consider themselves the ancient people, or original inhabitants of Wisconsin and Upper Michigan. Their creation story starts at the mouth of the Menominee River. There are 5 clans of the Menominee. The modern nation is governed in a model similar to the United States federal government.
Early colonization pushed tribes from the eastern shore of the United States towards the west, which put pressure on the Wisconsin tribes before colonization took place here. Jean Nicolet was the first documented European to enter Menominee territory in 1634. As colonization of Wisconsin continued, the land that the Menominee people were using became vital for the territory to apply for statehood. In 1854 the Menominee reservation by the Wolf River was created; chief Oshkosh had seen the land that the United States government wanted to move his tribe to and was able to negotiate a way for them to stay in the state. Scattered tribes across the state needed to move together to form the Menominee nation, and this newly-collected nation needed to find a way to make an income since they could no longer survive fully on their reservation land with their traditional nomadic lifestyle. The Menominee formed their own logging mill to process trees from the reservation land. Today there is a Menominee logging museum dedicated to telling that history.
Until the 1930s the Menominees were busy attempting to reclaim their children who were taken to residential schools and had to fight to keep their cultural practices alive. After assorted pressure in the 1950s, the Menominee reservation was disbanded in 1961 and there was great cultural and financial upheaval for the tribal members. Federal trust funds were lost in the change and Menominee tribal members needed to purchase their reservation lands before private entities beat them to it. Even once the lands were purchased, Menominee land owners were pressured to sell to private developers. Ada Deer and other tribe members formed a group called Determination of Rights and Unity of Menominee Shareholders (DRUMS) to fight these sales. The land developers were not able to purchase the land they were seeking and in 1977 the Menominee nation was once again federally recognized. In 1993 tribal members worked with the DNR to secure access to sturgeon that swim up the Wolf River to spawn; a dam in Shawano prevented the sturgeon from making it to reservation lands. The Menominee nation has faced considerable hardships, but they continue to carry on their traditional values into the modern day.
Menominee Music
Throughout all of this upheaval, the Menominee nation has had a strong connection to music. Material Culture of the Menomini, published in 1921, devoted multiple chapters to the musical instruments that the Menominee nation used. The book described three varieties of drums. The most important, from a ceremonial point of view, was the to’waka or “deep water drum”. The drum is a two-foot section of log, hollowed out, with a tanned deerskin head. The deerskin was specifically from the neck of a buck, where the skin would be the thickest. A willow hoop held the skin in place. Before playing, about two inches of water were added into the drum and the deerskin head would need to be softened and stretched. This drum may not sound loud to the player, but the deep and resonating beat could be heard for quite a distance. Another drum in use was the ta’wahigun. This drum was made from a large galvanized iron washtub that had the base removed. Over the top and bottom were placed raw calfskin drum heads. Before playing the drumheads would be heated before a fire. The ta’wahigun drum was a sacred drum and not left without an attendant from the Dreamers; a group that used the drum for a dream dance ritual. The third type of drum is the tambourine drum, known as the ta’wahinga’sa. Normally between 18 inches and 2 feet in diameter, there were also smaller versions made for different ritual purposes.
Material Culture of the Menomini also shared a variety of rattles and jinglers. The common rattle of the Menominee was a dried gourd with shot, glass beads, seeds, or pebbles inside, with a wooden handle attached to the neck of the gourd. These rattles were often protected by a birchbark wrapping and were hung on the wall for storage. Rattles could also be made from deer hoofs and dewclaws. These pieces were threaded on buckskin, knotted in place, and the line would be wrapped around a handle. A jingler was a line of deer hoofs or dewclaws on buckskin, just like the rattle form, but sewn on clothing, moccasins, or wristbands. The deer hoofs were eventually replaced by conical metal pieces, but the shape is identical to the deer hoofs originally used. In some songs the drums and rattles were accompanied by tapping sticks. Together, the author of Material Culture of the Menomini considers the drums, rattles, jinglers, and tapping sticks to be a strong percussive base for all Menominee music.
The Menominee also used whistles and flutes. Whistles may be made with reeds or from split alder branches and were under a foot in length. Flutes were carved from two pieces of cedar that were glued and lashed together and were large; sometimes measuring two feet or more in length. Flutes were primarily used for courting and were decorated to make a good impression.
The Menomini Indians, written by Walter James Hoffman in 1896, described games and dances that used the instruments described above. The moccasin game, or bullet game, was originally learned from the Ojibwe nation. Four people play the game while the fifth person sings and plays the tambourine drum. The players work in teams of two. One partner will attempt to hide four bullets under four moccasins in front of the group. One bullet has been marked to set it apart. The main player makes many fake moves, pretends to change the bullets around, and generally does everything they can do to confuse their opponents. While this is happening the drum is played, singing occurs, and the other players keep time with tapping sticks. Once all the bullets are hidden, one opponent has to flip the moccasin they guess holds the marked bullet. Scoring is kept with small sticks used as counters.
Two dances mentioned in The Menomini Indians are Tobacco and Shawano dances. There were other dances used in ceremonies, but the author described both of these as being exciting. The Shawano dance was likely introduced by the Shawnee tribe who lived to the south, relative to the Menominee nation.
There is a yearly Pow Wow held on the Menominee Reservation in Wisconsin. This gathering allows participants and spectators to enjoy traditional music and dancing and connect to Menominee culture.
Ojibwe History
The name Ojibwe, or Chippewa, translates to being “puckered”, and is thought to refer to the puckered seams on canoes or moccasins. The Ojibwe formed groups called bands that would travel together. Generally, many United States bands call themselves Ojibwe, but not all. There are bands in Canada that prefer to use Chippewa. Other bands may use the name Anishinabe interchangeably with Ojibwe. Anishinabe was an alliance between the Ojibwe, Potawatomi, and Ottawa nations. This alliance was formed along the eastern shore of the United States and as early as the 1500s bands began traveling west. The Anishinabe explored Lake Superior and found the wild rice (Manoomin) that grew there, which was a leading reason for settlement. The bands spread around the Great Lakes. Ojibwe bands in Wisconsin lived along the shores of the Great Lakes and on Madeline island. French traders brought tools and weapons to the area and friendly relationships between the two groups sometimes led to intermarriage. The Ojibwe joined the French in fighting the British in the 1600s. The tribe had no single leader; treaties from the 1800s show over 40 Ojibwe signatures on a single document.
When the United States government attempted to remove the Ojibwe from their homes, a delegation was able to convince President Fillmore to allow for permanent reservations instead. Four reservations were established in Bad River, Lac Courte Oreilles, Lac Du Flambeau, and Red Cliff. Assimilation policies damaged Ojibwe culture and their children were forced to attend boarding schools as early as 1856. Industrial (boarding) schools in Lac Du Flambeau, Hayward and Tomah all held Ojibwe children, but some were sent out of state for their schooling. This era continued until 1934 and the passing of the Indian Reorganization Act which allowed the St. Croix and Mole Lake Sokaogan bands of Ojibwe to also establish reservations.
In both WWI and WWII there were many Ojibwe men enlisted into military service. The Ojibwe “Code Talkers” became legendary in their work in the South Pacific; their language was unknown to the other nations and they could pass critical information while spies listened in. Once the surviving soldiers returned from the various wars, the Ojibwe still had to face the deep-seated discontent of their Wisconsin neighbors. It took decades to get compensation for flooded rice beds after dams were built along key rivers. In 1974 there was controversy over fishing rights for tribal members and it took a lawsuit against the State of Wisconsin to establish the Ojibwe nation’s right to use their treaty allowances. There were many instances of violence and hostility against the tribe as they attempted to spearfish in lakes around the state. Today spearfishing is a recognized right.
Ojibwe Music
Eddie Benton-Benai of the Ojibwe nation describes traditional music as the sound of life and creation itself. In the Ojibwe creation story, one creator formed all things. The sound of creation is the sound of a shaker, or jishigwan. This instrument is never referred to as a rattle. The first instrument of the Anishinabe people, the original form is a dried gourd filled with seeds. Smaller shakers are used by infants, children, and adolescents as they learn how to properly use the shaker. Some modern shakers are made with metal for a more resonant sound, which is a great addition during a crowded Pow Wow.
Ojibwe music connects the player to nature by mimicking natural patterns and sounds. The eagle whistle is an instrument that sounds like an eagle cry; as the first intercessor between humans and the spirit world, the eagle is very important in Ojibwe culture. There are many rules around who can carry an eagle whistle, when it can be used, and in what ways. The whistle itself is a short reed pipe, decorated by the user, that creates one two-toned note. Flutes are used to mimic the sounds of the wind and mourning and are made from a thicker piece of wood, often over a foot in length. Ojibwe flutes are often called “love flutes” due to the time and consideration that goes into the music played on them.
Drums are another key part of the music culture. The first drum is the water drum, which represents the heartbeat of the universe. A lodge’s water drum is never brought out into public; it is used for private ceremonial work only. The water drum of the Ojibwe nation is identical to that described for the Menominee nation. Hand drums, usually around 16 inches in diameter, are another early drum form. The drum head is stitched on one side so the player can hold the strings and control the pitch of the drum with hand pressure while they play. Considering the full timeline of Ojibwe music, the large circular drums seen at Pow Wows, used by groups of players simultaneously, are a recent addition. The beater sticks that are used with a drum are paired with the instrument. They work together and are not separated.
Today there are 6 Ojibwe reservations in Wisconsin and they all host Pow Wows throughout the year. Visiting these events allows spectators and participants to connect with the traditional music and dance of the tribal nation.
Ho-Chunk History
The Ho-Chunk nation in Wisconsin is also known as the Hochunkara/Hochungra and the Winnebago. “Winnebago” is an outdated term that was given to the tribe by other groups; this nation knows themselves as the Ho-Chunk, which means “people of the big voice”. There is a Winnebago tribe in Nebraska, which is related to the Ho-Chunk nation of Wisconsin, but they are operated and seen as separate tribes. The Ho-Chunk nation’s oral history places their origin in the Green Bay area. The nation expanded and at one point called most of Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula home. However, the Ho-Chunk primarily resided in the southern half of Wisconsin and the northern counties of Illinois. The Ho-Chunk nation is divided into 12 clans. Each clan originally had a certain responsibility that operated for the good of the whole tribe.
As the Anishinabe tribe moved into Ho-Chunk territory, starting in the 1500s, the Ho-Chunk nation began to split into groups. Pressure from other migrating tribes as European settlement continued along the east coast only exacerbated this process. This scattering of lands and tribal families led to a greater economic dependence on European goods and by the early 1800s white settlers were encroaching on Ho-Chunk land to mine lead. While the Ho-Chunk supported Tecumseh’s rebellion and the War of 1812, settlers continued to invade. Government removal of the tribe began in the 1820s, and small groups always found ways to return. There are many stories of soldiers forcing families off of their land, returning, and finding some of the same family members waiting on the original land. The Wisconsin Ho-Chunk are descendants of the people who continued to return and those who resisted resettlement. The Winnebago tribe in Nebraska was formed with the families who were forced into resettlement and could not return to Wisconsin. Those who completed the journey suffered tremendous losses of at least 25% of their tribal members.
Starting in 1878 Ho-Chunk children were sent to boarding schools, including one located in Tomah. The impacted families fought to reclaim their children and continue their cultural practices. After winning compensation for lost lands in 1974, the tribe was able to expand their land holdings in Wisconsin. So far they have reclaimed over 2,000 acres of lost land across 14 Wisconsin counties. The Ho-Chunk nation is a leading employer in Sauk county. The modern nation is governed in a model similar to the United States, with various branches of government and regular election cycles.
Ho-Chunk Music
Ho-Chunk music used many of the same instruments found in the Menominee and Ojibwe music cultures. Drums, rattles, flutes, and whistles are all used to accompany singing and dancing.
Major seasons of change often had corresponding ceremonial dances. For the Ho-Chunk, summer meant the Medicine Dance, which included religious connections. In winter a large feast and ceremony was held with the intention of increasing war and hunting powers. In spring the Buffalo Dance was held to request the herds to come closer.
There is no official Ho-Chunk reservation in Wisconsin but various groups of the Ho-Chunk nation can be found around the state. The government office is in Black River Falls. Various yearly Pow Wows are held near significant sizes of the Ho-Chunk nation and allow tribal members and spectators to enjoy the traditional music and dancing and connect to the tribal culture.
Are you interested in learning more about local tribal history? Click here to view a list of resources available online.
Thank you for reading this music history, presented together with the Portage County Historical Society's feature exhibit!
Be sure to visit the exhibit in-person during open hours and check out the digital collection of local music history.
